The [M 010 / Shang] was the first dynasty in Chinese history. A strong work ethic, in addition to political and religious obligations, ran through all levels of society. The agricultural-based economy was dependent on peasant labor. Labor groups of between 3,000 and 5,000 were responsible for forming the royal armies, as well as building royal tombs and tamped-earth foundations.
ZHOU DYNASTY (1122-221BC):
A semi-[G 14 / nomadic] clan, the Western Zhou Dynasty ruled as a feudal monarchy that was largely peaceful until the ninth century BC. Socially, the Western Zhou resembled the Shang in many ways, primarily with the existence of a nobility, a sharp distinction between the classes, and a system of ancestor worship.
Around 771BC, the Western Zhou Dynasty gave way to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. The Eastern Zhou is divided into two parts: the Spring and Autumn period, which is generally associated with [G 05 / Confucius], and the Warring States period, during which various kingdoms built earthen defences against their neighbors. This followed a period of upheaval and change during which the Western Zhou capital of Hao was ransacked.
The Eastern Zhou period is generally thought to be culturally significant. For one, history began to be recorded officially during this time. In addition, Confucianism and [G 06 / Daoism] replaced ancient religion, and military developments introduced innovative methods of defence and siege. The social structure also began to be reorganized - although not all schools of thought are in agreement on this issue. Other advances during this period included the use of horses - which began to be ridden instead of driven - and the creation of iron implements.
QIN DYNASTY (221-206BC):
Formed when Qin (one of the states during the Warring States period) conquered its neighbors to set up China's first imperial dynasty. The dynasty was known for its military discipline, its system of rewards and punishments and its attempts to increase grain production and distribution. Another distinction was the unification of earlier fortifications into a single defence system, built with much suffering amongst the local population who were forced to labor on it.
The system of rule differed from the old arrangement where provincial overlordship was held by the king's favorites on a hereditary basis. Under the Qin, provincial leaders were appointed by the central rulers, who could also have dismissed them if they failed in their duties. Rebellion and uprising marked the final years of the Qin Dynasty.
[M 002 / HAN DYNASTY] (202BC-AD220):
The Western Han ruled from 202-135BC, a period of consolidation of empire and appeasement of outside powers. From 135-90BC, foreign policy changed and expansion was sought. After this period, weakness reigned and the court was overcome with intrigue and political egoism.
From AD9-23, the Xin Dynasty attempted to restore some of the Zhou principles: social and political discipline, and imperial pride among them. The peasants rebelled and, under the banner of the [G 19 / Red Eyebrows], a period of turmoil began that led to the re-establishment of the Han two years later.
The Eastern Han Dynasty chose to adopt Western Han practises but with minor amendments. Various disturbances, such as the struggles at court over political influence and the rebellion of AD184, tore at the social structure. Central control came apart as regional landowners acted independently. This eventually led to the establishment of three kingdoms in China in AD220. At the same time, Confucian principles were questioned for their ability to hold the empire together. The collapse of the Han Dynasty was followed by 400 years of strife and unrest.
WEI, JIN, NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN DYNASTIES (AD220-581):
Although this period was characterized primarily by its political instability, there were economic and cultural advances that far surpassed anything evident in previous dynasties. The most prominent regional rivalry was between North and South, although there was a strong feeling that China was united by a common culture and should remain as one entity.
The Wei Dynasty was founded in the north in AD220 and took the southwest 43 years later. China, however, remained divided because of two other powers. The first was the state of Wu in the central and lower Yangtze Valley and and areas to its south. The second was the state of Shu in the southwest which was surrounded by mountains.
The Western Jin replaced the Wei in AD265 and in AD280 defeated the state of Wu. Some sort of unification looked possible, but the new regime relied too heavily on the nobility. Ethnic uprisings followed and by AD316, Jin power had come to an end. Rival warlords battled over the north for the next 150 years. Control over the south by the Eastern Jin lasted from AD317-420. Repeated attempts were made to capture the north, however, Eastern Jin rulers were suspicious of their own military leaders and never gave the campaigns their full support.
From AD387-534 the Northern Wei reorganized almost every aspect of society in the north, including labor, taxes, language, the civil service and the legal system. But the splendor the Northern Wei created in some 30 years did not last long. Non-Chinese, who were sadly mistreated, rebelled. The rebellion was crushed by another tribe and the Northern Wei Dynasty was split into the Eastern and Western Wei. In AD552 the Eastern Wei was overthrown and five years later the Western Wei succumbed. These were replaced by the Zhou dynasty which lasted until AD581.
SUI DYNASTY (AD581-618):
From AD581-604 China enjoyed its greatest period of prosperity since the Han. From AD605-617 the second Sui emperor enthusiastically followed a policy of advancement. He was, however, far too ambitious in some projects, including reinforcing the Great Wall. The dynasty fell when he was assassinated in AD618.
TANG DYNASTY (AD618-907):
The Tang Dynasty grew out of the turmoil left by the Sui. Initially, the Tang had to fight other contenders for the throne and it was not until AD628 that the last rebellion against it was crushed. The Tang conquest was marked by brilliant military leadership. The rules of civil government were established early on and remained in place throughout the dynasty. The Tang also cultivated contacts with tribes all over Asia and foreign powers such as the Byzantium and Iranian. The introduction of Buddhism into China, among other influences, was the result.
In the mid-600s, drama at the court saw in an empress who would stand no challenge to her influence. Oddly enough, a rebellion by the Tang royal family rose up against what it saw as undue pretension on the empress' behalf. A purge followed and many were killed. In AD690, the Empress Wu installed herself as supreme ruler and became the only female to ascend the throne in Chinese history. When she died, power reverted to the Tang royal family. A period of corruption followed until AD712 when the Tang Dynasty entered its most glorious period. Cultural activities flourished, corruption ended and successful defence measures were introduced. But tension was not far away. As the aristocrats responsible for much of the reforms took power, the emperor gradually withdrew into study.
Rebellion in the north from AD750-763, which rose from a rivalry between two generals, left millions dead and millions more displaced further south. The center of the rebellion remained in [M 004 / Hebei] Province and this lasted well into the ninth century. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the south gained prominence as China's economic center. Along with this came social changes - the old aristocracy gave way to an educated class.
Various uprisings and natural disasters, such as the floods and droughts in the Yangtze Valley in the AD830s and the mutinies in the provincial armies deployed in the south, led to the downfall of the Tang Dynasty. China, by then, had been carved up into regions with their separate power bases.
FIVE DYNASTIES AND 10 KINGDOMS (AD907-959):
The five dynasties were principally located in northern China. The 10 kingdoms, with the exception of Northern Han (AD951-979), were in central and southern China.
The five dynasties were [M 006 / Liang] (AD907-923), [M 007 / Tang](AD923-936), [M 008 / Jin (AD936-946), Han] (AD947-950) - the shortest-lived dynasty in Chinese history - and [M 009 / Zhou](AD951-959). The Liang had three emperors, the Tang four, the Jin and the Han two each, and the Zhou three.
The 10 kingdoms were Wu (AD902-937), Southern Tang (AD937-975), Wuyue (AD908-978), Jingnan (AD913-963), Chu (AD907-951), Former Shu (AD 908-925), Later Shu (AD934-965), Min (AD909-945), Southern Han (AD907-971) and Northern Han (AD951-979). The first three were in the Yangtze Delta area; the next two were in the Middle Yangtze; and the Former and Later Shu in the Upper Yangtze. The [M 004 / Min was in Fujian, Southern Han in Guangdong and Guangxi and Northern Han in northern Shanxi].
SONG DYNASTY (AD960-1279):
This dynasty is divided into two periods: Northern Song (AD960-1126) during which China was unified and Southern Song (1127-1279), when the Song ruled the south and the [G 09 / Jurchen] Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) the north. Other alien dynasties prominent during the reign of the Song were the Liao (AD904-1125), the Xixia (AD990-1227) and the [G 12 / Mongol] Yuan, which finally conquered all of China.
The first years of the Song Dynasty were those of unification and an end to the militarization that had swept through China. The Northern Song fell when its last emperor's extravagant tastes and poor judgement, combined with financial mismanagement and military ineptitude, resulted in his abdication. The Southern Song virtually abandoned the idea of retaking the north from the Jurchen and a peace treaty was signed. Song leaders at the time were not known for their all-powerful control and were open to outside influences.
Although often seen as weak, the dynasty enjoyed almost unprecedented harmony with its neighbors. Urbanization was a new social phenomenon that arose during the Song. Large cities formed and spread beyond the limited confines of the old walls. The Song was also renowned for its technological contributions that included the printing press.
The dynasty began to fall when foreign policy was reversed. In an effort to recover long-lost territory, the Song attacked its neighbors. Forty years later the Mongols overran China and the Yuan Dynasty emerged.
YUAN DYNASTY (1276-1338):
The most famous of the Yuan emperors was [I 004 / Kubilai Khan], the grandson of Genghis Khan. During his reign from 1260-1294, Kubilai conquered all of China. But the [G 12 / Mongols] did not have fixed procedures for succession, which led to court intrigues that aided in the downfall of the Yuan Dynasty. There was also dissension between those who supported the traditional way of life and those who wanted to establish good relations with the Chinese they ruled.
The military-dominated Mongols were vastly different from the Chinese in the way they ruled. Biligualism was insisted upon and Mongolian bodies were established to co-exist with Chinese institutions. The currency was converted to a paper-based form of exchange and technological advancements included gunpowder. The Mongols never imposed their religious beliefs on their subjects.
After the disastrous floods of the Yellow and Huai Rivers in the 14th century, popular rebellions weakened Mongol rule. Attempts to use forced labor to repair the water control works created further discontent. With the [G 18 / Red Turban] revolts that spread from the middle Yangtze to [M 004 / Shandong province], China was fractured by anti- Mongol uprisings. Opposition was originally against the ruling class, however, this later refocused on expulsion of the Mongols which succeeded with the conquest of their capital at Dadu.
[M 002 / MING DYNASTY] (1368-1644):
The early years of the [M 002 / Ming Dynasty] were characterized by consolidation of power and intimidation. However, the organization of government administration deprived the emperors of assistance from traditional advisors. The enormous work load meant government was not as effective as it could have been. At the same time, the power of the court [G 07 / eunuchs] increased dramatically over that of all previous dynasties.
Improvements in rural society were promoted and farmers enjoyed peace and prosperity. The system of entry to the civil service by examination was also restored early in the dynasty. Relations with China's neighbors were dependent upon treaties, tributes and trade. In 1368, the Ming expelled the last of the [G 12 / Mongols] from the north. However, Mongol militarism was far from over and was viewed as a major threat to China. Relations with Japan, on the other hand, were cordial and trade between the two nations flourished. This lasted until 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea. Relations were restored in 1603.
From 1435, Ming China suffered from a series of unremarkable rulers. The rebellion of Li Zicheng in the far northwest precipitated the downfall of the dynasty. With the Ming army preoccupied in the north by the [G 11 / Manchu] threat, Li Zicheng's forces entered a virtually defenceless Beijing. The last Ming emperor consequently committed suicide. The Manchus pursued Li's mob and invaded Beijing in 1644, usurping the throne to establish their own dynasty.
QING DYNASTY (1644-1912):
The first four decades of the Qing Dynasty were concerned with attempting to placate Ming loyalists. Peace only came in the 1680s. The subsequent success of the Qing can be attributed to three powerful leaders who ruled China for a total of 138 years. This included a period recognized as the least corrupt in Chinese history. The period from 1735 to about 1790 was known as the `Golden Age.' China expanded positively on every front: its armies were victorious, its economy healthy and its population grew rapidly.
However, the last few years of the 18th century saw the emergence of unchecked corruption and levels of inefficiency which would not previously have been tolerated. The [G 25 / White Lotus] Rebellion of the 1790s brought anti-dynastic sentiment into the open. The situation deteriorated in the early 1800s and by the 1830s, China's balance of trade surplus was being seriously upset by the opium traffic. Natural disasters exacerbated the problem.
At the same time, Chinese rulers found themselves challenged by foreign powers wanting to open up China to foreign trade and exploitation. The Opium War began in 1840 and ended two years later with the Treaty of Nanjing. China agreed to pay Britain a substantial indemnity and opened four additional coastal ports to foreign trade.
Similar agreements were made with other European powers (such as the French) but the [G 11 / Manchus] did not generally regard these foreign influences as a major threat to their power. Internal difficulties in the mid-1800s - such as the [G 24 / Taiping] and [G 13 / Nian] Rebellions - were seen as more serious and efforts were made to improve military capabilities to protect the dynasty from threats without and within. However, the Chinese failure in the Sino-French and Sino-Japanese Wars was proof of the policy's failure.
Problems with the Qing leadership worsened. The Empress Dowager Cixi wielded too much power behind the scenes. She supported policies that maintained her power, but were often detrimental to the interests of the country. When she gave her support to the Boxer Movement, the results were disastrous. The [G 04 / Boxer Rebellion] led to the foreign occupation of Beijing which resulted in a subsequent protocol forcing China to pay a large indemnity to the foreign powers. A number of reforms followed but these were not sufficient.
In the early 20th century, the [G 20 / Republican] Movement under Sun Yat-sen gained greater popularity. With the [G 26 / Wuchang] Uprising of 1911, strategic towns and cities followed Sun Yat-sen and a provisional government was formed in Nanjing. In February, 1912 the last emperor, Puyi, was forced to abdicate, ending 2,000 years of imperial rule.
